Maya Angelou `The Graduation` Essay

P1- Summarize the essay and identify the author and title; Maya Angelou is the walking encyclopedia. She has astounding achievements to her credit. She is a great social thinker; her contribution in all the wings of literature is extraordinary! Welfare of women is very dear to her heart and therefore she is known as the Renaissance woman. Her inner world is very strong; when she speaks she mesmerizes the audience with the facts and figures and her oratorical skills. She has clearly crossed the mind barrier, she radiates peace, demolishes the structure of race-prejudice. The pages of human history daubed in bloodshed and coated with racial and ethnic prejudices, ask the crying question. How to make this Planet Earth heaven- like? The answer is simple and direct. Eyes full of understanding, heart full of love and the life that refuses conflicts-these alone are enough!—ask Maya Angelou—she is the living example of all these ideals and seen the practical application of them. She is born on April 4, 1928, St. Louis, Missouri. She is the second poet in U. S. History to be given the honor of writing and reciting original work at the Presidential Inauguration in January 1993. She has written autobiographies, personal essays, children books, poetry, plays, screenplays, acting in films and plays, radio broadcasting, recordings, spoken word albums, article contribution to many important magazines and newspapers,   a linguist with fluency in seven   languages, honorary degrees of   many universities/colleges, and what not! She has lived through the crucial period of the American history when bitter race prejudices prevailed. â€Å"The Graduation,† essay shows the path of her growth during the trying time in her life. The white power structure in the South treated the black badly, rather inhumanly. The black people suffered blows to every part of their psyche, everyday in every walk of life. How local politicians used the non-political event like Graduation Ceremony to promote their own self-interests is highlighted in the essay. P2- Explain the primary aim that you see in this essay. What is the author’s main purpose? What is he or she trying to accomplish in writing this essay? The primary aim of the essay is recollection of her past, as a women belonging to the Negro race. Her writing, apart from the literary merits, seems to be simple and sweet, but behind that simplicity runs an undercurrent of steel-will, that sets a program and sees it through. Her toughened smile indicates the harsh realities she had experienced in her life. The greatest beauty of her writing is that she is free from malice. She advises you to live life in its hard trials, tribulations, duty and beauty. She makes her points by giving due weight to the pair of opposites and the need to understand and transcend them. Spirituality and love for humanity radiates throughout the essay. She says, without actually saying it verbatim, that unless the thought process of the Whites change, their action process will never change and the black race will continue to suffer. Only when the thoughts are changed, the mind is changed; when the mind is changed, the man is changed; when the man is changed, the society is changed. The laws are there, the constitutional rights are there for the black race, but their actual implementation being biased, the ground realities are not as they should be! P3- Explain the primary mode you see in this essay? What is the method of organization (mode) used by the author? It is an autobiographical essay. This essay is the product of her experiences in the College of Self-education (real-life situations) where her mind was her Principal. Her initiatives, her Professors! Her hard work her Tutors! She was an individual who would decide on a project; she would start, and she would finish! She is one of the rare souls whom God deputes on Planet Earth, to transform a weak, subjugated race into a powerful body of responsible citizens. Essays like Graduation are not the products of intellect alone; they arrive straight from the heart. One’s experience is precious and any author can not avoid the deep impact and influence of one’s own experiences in life. Maya Angelou is not exception to this rule. â€Å"She applies three rhetorical strategies-an expressive voice, illustrative comparison and contrast, and flowing sentences bursting with vivid simile and delightful imagery to examine the personal growth of humans caught in the adversity of racial discrimination.†(Maya†¦..) The Graduation Day was the historic event in the life of small black community-they were anticipating a great recognition, the second-birth in their life. She describes that emotion, how they were trembling within, happy with the sense of anticipation of something very big that would happen soon engulf their lives, their innocence and tension, the uncertainty within the certainty etc. She did not write the essay with her pen but by her heart. It has the graceful movements of the traditional classical dance. The language is colorful like the feathers of a peacock. The moods and emotions change from paragraph to paragraph, sometimes from sentence to sentence. She creates hopes, soars high like an ace pilot and then dashes to the ground. When you are readying to laugh, you realize that your eyes are moist. You wonder how a human being can be that cruel to a fellow human being. The Graduation was a community event for the blacks. A life-time achievement award! But silent internal mourning was in store for them. With that grim experience, they all became cynical. During the Graduation ceremony a white boy, is afforded an opportunity to speak, in preference to a blacks. Maya muses, â€Å"The white kids were going to have a chance to become Galileo’s and Madame Curie’s and Edison’s and Gauguin’s, and our boys (the girls weren’t even in on it) would try to be Jesse Owensen’s and Joe Louise’s† (pg.6). But she regains her hope when her classmate Henry Reed sings the Negro National Anthem. Now Maya thinks, â€Å"We were on top again. As always, again! We survived. (pg.8). She compares the hard times of the present with the harder times of the past. The hallmark of the essay is the power of the language. It is extraordinary     like a brilliant painting in motion. Here are some of the examples:   Ã¢â‚¬Å"The children were excited and ran around in the dark. †¦ having neither lawn nor hedges, not tennis court, nor climbing ivy. Its two buildings (main classrooms, the grade school and home economics) were set on a dirt hill with no fence†¦ Rusty hoops and swaying poles represented the permanent recreational equipment† (Article: 2) â€Å"My class was wearing butter-yellow pique dresses, and momma launched out on mine. She smocked the yoke into tiny crisscrossing puckers, the shirred the rest of the bodice. Her dark fingers ducked in and out of the lemony cloth as she embroidered raised daisies around the hem.†(Article: 2)   Ã¢â‚¬Å"A group of small children were to be presented in a play about buttercups and daisies and bunny rabbits. They could be heard throughout the building practicing their hops and their little songs that sounded like silver bells. The older girls (non-graduates, of course) were assigned the task of making refreshments for the night’s festivities. A tangy scent of ginger, cinnamon, nutmeg, and chocolate wafted around the home economics building†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Article: 2) When the Graduation ceremony ends, they return home, without joy. Like the ones back from a mourning event! P4- Explain the main point of the essay. Was the author successful in accomplishing his/her point? The main point of the essay is to highlight the social conditions that prevailed fifty-five years ago in the South in the field of education between the white and the black students. The fanciful facilities and luxuries the white children enjoyed in their schools– even the level headed Maya Angelou is driven to the wall to make the statement, it â€Å"was awful to be a Negro and have no control over my life.† She is happy that the black children and youth have made a mark in their life now. The black community has succeeded to a great extent in beating back discrimination. Their wings are strong now and they no more have to live the life of the bird in a cage. But, even on getting access to education, the job prospectuses for the black children were limited then. The South trained them in vocational studies, like carpenters, masons, maids, cooks, baby sitters etc. The White participated symbolically in the Graduation ceremonies and lectured on God, Southern way of life etc. She makes the poignant comment that the anticipated Negro National Anthem fails to play and what a disappointment it is for the black students!   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   ==============   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   References Cited Article-2: Maya Angelou. members.aol.com/sunny2345/angelou.html – 4k – Retrieved on November 27,2007. Article: Maya Angelou. www.mayaangelou.com/ShortBio.html – 5k -Retrieved on November 25, 2007.

Cell phone use while driving: a literature review and recommendations Essay

1. Introduction Cellular telephones (cell phones) were first introduced in the United States in the mid-1980s, and their use has since experienced explosive growth. Today there are more than 262 million cell phone subscribers, representing 84 percent of the United States population. Cell phone technology has become very useful for people on the move, which is demonstrated by surveys that show that the majority of users reported using their phones while driving. Cell phone use by drivers, although difficult to quantify, has been estimated through observational data by the federal government at six percent of drivers in 2007 (IIHS, 2006). This rate means that at any moment during the day, one million passenger vehicles in the United State are being driven by people on hand-held cell phones. Further analysis of these statistics show that women are more likely to be on their phones while driving; eight percent of women use cell phones while driving compared to five percent of their male counterparts. Also of importance, this data found that young drivers (16-24 years old) were most likely to be on their cell phones at 10 percent compared to six percent of those aged 2569 and one percent of drivers 70 and older (see Figure 1). Public perception of the dangers of cell phone use while driving seems to coincide with common sense and experience, but common practice does not. In a survey done by Nationwide Insurance (IIHS, 2008), four out of five surveyed cell phone owners admitted to driving while distracted. Even though almost half of the surveyed people consider cell phone use to be the most dangerous distraction, 98 percent of the drivers consider themselves to be safe drivers. An interesting result of the survey was that almost two-thirds of cell phone owners say they were expected by family, friends or employers to always be reachable by phone or other communication device. Among young drivers in this survey, 40 percent said they send or read text messages along with other activities while driving in order to â€Å"remain connected† (IIHS, 2008). Another survey of only teenage drivers conducted by State Farm Insurance, found that only 25 percent viewed cell phone use while driving as dangerous. Almost 80 percent, however, recognized that texting on cell phones while driving was risky (IIHS, 2008). The rate at which young drivers are most likely to be using cell phones while driving, along with their attitude towards the perceived risk of using such devices, is concerning because this group is already at the highest risk for collisions even without these distractions. A survey conducted by AAA and Seventeen magazine found that 46 percent of drivers 16 and 17 years old said that they text message while driving. This is a profound statistic because 37 percent of the same teenagers said that they believed that text messaging was the most dangerous driver distraction (Quain, 2007). 2. Quantifying Cell Phone Usage and Crash Risk Drivers’ attentiveness has been a concern since the invention of the automobile. As technology increases, the number of driver distractions increases. Each year, more than 42,000 people are killed, more than 3 million are injured, and more than 6 million collisions occur on roads in the United States (IIHS, 2006). Estimates have attributed between 30-50 percent of collisions to distracted drivers, resulting in huge amount of societal cost (Cohen, 2003). Although common sense and experience tells us that using cell phones while driving is dangerous, a number of studies are devoted to quantifying the exact risk associated with using a cell phone while driving. Since the mid-1990s, around 120 studies have attempted to validate a common conception: using a cell phone while driving is a distraction and therefore increases crash risk (IIHS, 2008). The literature on this subject investigates various relationships between cell phone use and accident risk. These studies can be separated into three general groups: epidemiological studies, experimental studies, and real-world studies. Epidemiological studies examine real-world accident data and cell phone records to draw conclusions based on the relationship between the two. Behavioral and experimental studies attempt to measure some cognitive effect of cell phone use on normal driving functions such as visual attention, following distance, reaction time, and other driving tasks. Real-world studies attempt to show how real-world situations either justify or disprove the other data. Before discussing selected studies, a summary of the general conclusions from each type of study is presented below: (a) Epidemiological Studies: Studies that analyze the relationship between cell phone use and increased crash risk using case studies where people have been in actual accident. Researchers have concluded that the use of cell phones while driving significantly increases the risk of collision (Ontario Medical Association, 2008). (b) Experimental and Behavioral Studies: These studies have been able to demonstrate that having a conversation on a cell phone is cognitively distracting and causes deterioration in driving performance. These studies also confirm the finding of the epidemiological studies that when driving performance is affected negatively, an increased crash risk is observed (Ontario Medical Association, 2008). (c) Real-World Studies: These studies are observations of test subjects that are monitored while in the field. Conclusions are drawn based on the observed data and are a reflection of actual events. The real-world studies have proven that the single most dangerous driver distraction is cell phone use. 2.1 Epidemiological Studies Epidemiological studies have attempted to measure the association of cell phone use with the risk of collision. They examine accident data and cell phone records to obtain a correlation, resulting in a relationship between cell phone use and accident risk. The following review focuses on three epidemiological studies that indicate cell phone use is associated with an increase risk of collision. 2.1.1 Cellular Phones and Traffic Accidents, 1996 In an early study in 1996, Violanti and Marshall used a case-controlled design study where they selected 100 random drivers that had been involved in crashes in the previous two years and compared them against another group of 100 randomly selected drivers who had not been involved in crashes in the previous 10 years. The study concluded that using a cell phone for 50 minutes per month resulted in a collision risk 5.59 times greater than not using a cell phone at all. In this study, the risk ratio is statistically significant, but the confidence limits were large. The obvious limitations of this study are: (1) small number of cell phone users in the sample; (2) selection bias; and (3) lack of evidence that the cell phone users were using their phones at the time of the collision. 2.1.2 Association between Cellular Telephone Calls and Motor Vehicle Collisions, 1997 Redelmeier and Tibshirani (1997) conducted the most quoted epidemiological study of cell phone use and increased crash risk in 1997. This research was a case cross-over design, where each subject served as his/her own control. The study included 699 drivers who had been involved in a collision and who owned cell phones. The authors used five-minute intervals of time before the time of the collision, and compared those against the same time on the previous day. The authors were able to conclude that the risk of collision was approximately four times higher than when the same subjects were not using their cell phones. The only significant limitation to this study is that collision times are estimated. There exists the possibility that cell phone use was a post-collision call instead of a pre-collision call. The authors made a conscious effort to eliminate calls that were precipitated by the collision by identifying 9-1-1 calls and through thorough questioning of the drivers. 2.1.3 Wireless Telephones and the Risk of Road Accidents, 2001 Laberge and Nadeau conducted an epidemiological study in Quebec in 2001. This study was based on a self-reported questionnaire from a sample of 36,079 participants, of which 35 percent had records with cellular telephone providers. Taking into account only age and year of observation, cell phone users had a 38 percent higher risk of collisions than non-users. Including additional constraints, such as miles driven and driving habits increased the relative risk by 11 percent for males and 21 percent for females. The authors also applied the case cross-over design used by Redelmeier and Tibshirani to their data. This method produced a relative risk of being in a crash while using a cell phone at 5.13 times that of a non-user. However, the authors concluded that this case cross-over design over-estimates the risk, and determined that a more realistic risk of collision is around 1.3-1.4 times that of a non-user. 2.2 Experimental and Behavioral Studies The majority of the literature reports on experimental and behavior studies examine the impact of cell phone use on the cognitive functions necessary for driving. Many of the experimental studies have correlated how cell phone use, including hands-free devices, while driving interferes with or degrades various aspects of driving. Because of the quantity of experimental and behavioral studies, only representative research is reviewed in the following four categories: (1) Field-of-View Studies; (2) Brain Research Studies; (3) Simulator Studies; and (4) Benchmark Impairment Studies. 2.2.1 Field of View Studies In 2003, Strayer’s reseach group at the University of Utah found that drivers who use cell phones are less able to process visual information. Based on the observations of participants in a simulator, the study was able to conclude that drivers conversing on cell phones increase their risk of collisions. The researchers attributed the increase in collision risk to a theory called â€Å"Inattention Blindness†. Inattention Blindness is summarized to be, â€Å"Even when participants [drivers] are directing their gaze at objects in the driving environment, they may fail to ‘see’ them because attention is directed elsewhere.† The study also found that the use of hands-free and hand-held cell phones equally impair the driver’s ability to see objects. The study found that â€Å"the disruptive effects of cell phone conversations on driving are due in a large part to the diversion of attention from driving to the phone conversation.† This diversion of attention also affects the driver’s ability to react to sudden event placing pedestrians and others at increased risk for injury (Strayer, 2003). In 2005, researchers from the Japanese Automobile Research Institute further examined the findings from the University of Utah report. The authors of this report agreed with the conclusions of the earlier report, but felt that a more direct assessment of the visual attention needed to be done to identify the exact amount of diversion from what the driver is looking at to the cell phone conversation. The authors conducted experiments with drivers on a simulator using the medically known physiological response â€Å"Binocular Fusion†. The results of this study show that, â€Å"engaging in hands-free phone conversation interferes with visual information processing. The increment of binocular gaze dissociation by conversing on a phone indicates that the driver’s attention is diverted from the external scenery to the conversation.† The purpose of the report was not necessarily to prove that speaking on a cell phone increases crash risk, but this relationship is inferred by the authors (Uchida, 2005). Figure 2 is extracted from Wood’s field-of-view study in 2006 that obtained similar results as the studies mentioned above. It demonstrates the number of errors drivers made while listening and responding to questions went up dramatically when compared against no distractions. 2.2.2 Brain Research Studies A 2005 Study by GM Corp., Wayne State University Medical School, and Henry Ford Hospital set a foundation for understanding how cell phone use by a driver influences the brain function. This study used Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (Æ’MRI) and Magnetoencephalography (MEG) to locate essential brain activated structures and their corresponding dynamics. As discussed above, field-of-view studies generally depend on behavior observations to determine if the mind is focused on the road and thus fail to completely reflect what the brain may actually be doing. The authors suggest that there are situations where behavioral indicators will show that the mind is on the road, but in reality, it is not. With this understanding, the authors set out to uncover the exact neural mechanisms that are associated with distracted behaviors while driving. Putting participants in a simulator and monitoring their brain function, the authors were able to identify the major brain pathways involved in driving and distracted driving. This study set a foundation for determining and measuring how the brain reacts to distracted driving (Young, 2005). In 2007, researchers at Carnegie Mellon University conducted a study furthering the previous study by using Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (Æ’MRI) to investigate the impact of concurrent auditory language comprehension on the brain activity when simultaneously exposed to a simulated driving experience. Participants operated a driving simulator, either undisturbed or while listening to statements they had to identify as true or false. This auditory language comprehension was designed to mimic talking on a cell phone. The participant’s brain activity was monitored during the simulations and was compared against the Æ’MRI scans of the undisturbed driver’s brain. The authors found that when participants experienced the dual-task condition, mental resources were taken away from areas of the brain that deal with driving tasks (see Figure 3). This occurred even though the areas of the brain that deal with driving tasks and auditory comprehension are different. The authors were able to make two conclusion based on their experimental data: (1) mental resources are diverted from driving tasks to 5 auditory comprehension regardless of other physical tasks; and (2) the deterioration of driving performance occurs because of a competition of mental resources in the brain between driving tasks and auditory comprehension (Just, 2008). Figure 3 Percentage Change in Signal Intensity for Five Functional Groupings of Cortical Areas (Source: Just, 2008) Spatial processing areas significantly decrease with the addition of the sentence listening task. 2.2.3 Simulator Studies In 2001, Strayer’s research group at the University of Utah submitted test subjects to different levels of distractions while driving in a simulator. The researchers were able to conclude that cellular phone conversations while driving caused the subjects to react slower to stimuli and perform tasks with considerably reduced precision. Specifically, while engaged in cell phone conversations the subjects were twice as likely to miss simulated traffic signals compared to when they were not distracted. These results were also qualified by showing that talking on a cell phone was more dangerous than when the driver was subjected to common in-vehicle distractions, such as the radio and books-on-tape. The researchers also wanted to determine if the reason the subjects missed the traffic signals was because they did not see them or because they were slow to respond to them. To determine this, the researchers examined the memory of the subjects after normal driving as well as distracted driving. The results indicated clear memory impairment after having been engaged in cell phone conversations. The researchers were able to conclude that active participation in a cell phone conversation while driving disrupted driving performance by diverting attention from driving tasks to a cognitive process. In a 2002 observational study by the Insurance Corporation of British Columbia, researchers used a complex method of identifying specific cell phone users and non-users through in-field observations, and linking these people with their driving records. This method presents some obvious limitations or uncertainty about the user classification; however, the results corresponded well with other identifying methods. The driving records of the cell phone users had higher counts of moving violation citations over the previous four years, to include speeding, alcohol, failure to use seat belts, aggressive driving violations, and non-moving violations. Although the correlation between these violations and use of a cell phone is not scientifically proven by this study, it does likely reflect a difference in lifestyle, attitude and personality of the typical cell phone users; indicating they are inherently riskier drivers (Wilson, 2003). These simulator studies are consistent with a self-report survey conducted by the Traffic Injury Research Foundation. The authors of this report determined that people who use cell phones while driving were more likely to have received a traffic ticket in the last year, drive after drinking, and to consume greater quantities of alcohol when they drink. Again, these behavioral indicators cannot necessarily be directly linked to cell phone use; rather, they suggest a personality type who frequently uses a cell phone while driving (Beirness, 2002). 2.2.4 Benchmark Impairment Studies Innumerable studies have been able to prove the correlation between cell phone use while driving and an increased risk of crashing when compared to normal driving. What these studies have failed to do is show a comparison to known impairment levels. There have been at least three studies that compare the cell phone driver to a drunk driver at the per-se blood-alcohol concentration limit of 0.08 wt/vol. This blood alcohol concentration has been thoroughly studied and quantified as the limit at which the average driver will become incapable of safely operating a motor vehicle. Comparing the cell phone driver to a benchmark of this caliber becomes a solid comparison and explanation to how dangerous driving while on a cell phone really is. In a 2002 study by Burns et al., the authors designed a study to compare the impairment from handsfree and hand-held phone conversations to the decline in driving performance caused by alcohol impairment. Participants were given either an alcoholic beverage or a placebo drink and placed in front of a driving simulator that represented realistic driving tasks. The quantity of alcohol was determined from the participant’s age and body mass, and was closely correlated with the legal limit of .08 mg/ml blood alcohol concentration. The results of this experiment showed a clear substantial decrease in driving performance when using a hand-held phone, in comparison to the sober condition. Driving performance under the influence of alcohol was significantly worse than normal driving, but better than driving while using a phone, leading to a conclusion that driving while talking on a phone is more impairing then driving at the legal limit of alcohol. Strayer’s research group at the University of Utah published research comparing the cell phone driver and the drunk driver in 2003, and a revised report in 2006. The purpose of their research was to provide a direct comparison of the driving performance of a cell phone driver and an alcohol impaired driver in a controlled laboratory setting. These researchers used participants who were casual drinkers and compared their own sober driving, cell phone driving, and alcohol-impaired driving to themselves. This method of control seems to be more accurate than the previous studies’ process of comparing the same situations in different subjects. The researchers were able to conclude that both the intoxicated driver and the cell phone drivers’ driving profiles were different from the sober base-line. Cell phone drivers exhibited a delay in their response to events, had longer following distances, took longer to recover lost speed following braking, and were involved in more traffic accidents. Drivers in the intoxicated condition exhibited a more aggressive driving profile by following closer to the vehicle in front of them and braking harder. The researchers suggest the data indicates impairment or risk from cell phone use is as great as that of the intoxicated driver, but in different ways. The authors also noted that driving impairments associated with hands-free devices and hand-held devices were not significantly different, indicating that the impairment comes from a diversion of attention from the processing of normal driving tasks. 2.3 Real-World Studies Several real-world studies have been conducted and are being conducted to further validate the epidemiological and experimental studies. Our review indicates that the majority of these studies are funded in part by insurance companies or makers of driving performance enhancers. The most commonly cited real-world study involved 100 cars and 42,000 hours of driving time monitored by in-vehicle cameras and sensors over a one-year period. The study was conducted by the Virginia Tech Transportation Institute in 2006, and concluded that, â€Å"secondary task distractions† were the prime factor in collisions. The single biggest distraction leading to collisions was cell phone conversations, dialing, and sending text messages. The Virginia Tech Transportation Institute is conducting another study that involves 2500 drivers and will last three years (Bunkley). We have been able to identify several other current real-world studies that are underway. The studies are funded primarily by insurance companies, and we have been unable to obtain any information about them due to proprietary reasons (Olson, 2007; Robinson, 2008). 2.4 Police Accident Reports Since the studies prove the hypothesis that cell phone use while driving increases crash risk, quantitative analysis of crash causation data should reflect this. This, however, is not the case. The reasons that the real-world data does not match the experimental and epidemiological conclusions are due primarily to two factors. First, three states in 2001 and six states in 2002 provided a specific space on their uniform crash reports to indicate that the use of a cell phone had been involved in the collision. In addition, even with a space available on a police report to record cell phone involvement, the box may or may not be marked. The investigating officer has multiple responsibilities at an accident scene, including tending to injured, restoring traffic flow, completing the investigation, and issuing citations for criminal violations. Officer discretion plays a part in the completion of police reports; even if evidence of cell phone use is present, the officer may or may not indicate that cell phone use was a factor in the collision. A NHTSA study of North Carolina supports this analysis. The study concluded that the underreporting of crashes that are a result of inattention due to cell phone use is substantial. The portion of crashes that were reported to be due to inattention because of cell phone use was 1.5 percent which is significantly below the estimated value obtained in more comprehensive studies of 3050 percent (Cohen, 2003). Second, even if the collection of this data is a requirement for every state, it would likely still be inaccurate because of the public’s reluctance to report cell phone use to police. Because the risks of using cell phones while driving are becoming commonly known and more states are adopting laws to outlaw the use of cell phones while driving, the likelihood that an offender admit to using a cell phone to a police officer becomes less. In addition, a police officer’s reasonable investigation time does not allow for a comprehensive investigation of every crash to include determining the use of cell phones. This is more likely to be reserved for very serious crashes where serious injury and or loss of life were present. To help address the underreporting of crashes that are due to cell phone use, several federal agencies, national organizations, and state and local governments have worked to improve the data collection. In 2003, the national Governors’ Highway Safety Association released a revised edition of the Model Minimum Uniform Crash Criteria (MMUCC), which included changes that would help record the number of crashes associated with distracted driving. The changes, which were developed with the help of NHTSAS, the Federal Highway Administration, the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration, and numerous state and local agencies, define the information that should be collected at an accident scene. Included in the new criteria is that reports should include any information regarding distracted driving. The changes are designed to facilitate more accurate reporting of distracted driving, which in turn, will give policy makers and data analysts more concrete data from which to make conclusions (Sundeen, 2004). The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) has also taken aim at the problem of cell phone use and its underreporting. In a press release in 2006, the NTSB acknowledged that cell phone use by driver’s results in a cognitive distraction that leads to an increase in accident rates. The same press release suggested that the remaining 20 states that at the time did not have driver distraction codes on their uniform accident reports add them (National Transporation Safety Board, 2006). In 2008, the NTSB made a press release that again emphasized the dangers of cell phone use by drivers by citing research conclusion that such activity reduces driving performance. The press release also indicated that the NTSB had added cell phone restrictions by commercial drivers to its 2009 list of most wanted safety improvements (National Transportaion Safety Board, 2008). 3. Cell Phones and Teenage Driver 3.1 Teen Drivers’ Collision Statistics Teen drivers are alarmingly prevalent in the collision statistics. In 2005, 4,544 teens ages 16 to 19 died of injuries sustained in motor vehicle crashes. In the same year, almost 400,000 motor vehicle occupants in this age group were hospitalized from injuries sustained in automobile crashes. Overall in 2005, teenagers accounted for 7 percent of the driving population, but they account for 14 percent of all fatalities. Young people ages 15-24 represent 14 percent of the U.S. population, but account for 30 percent of the motor vehicle injuries. The most concerning age group is the 16-19 year olds. Drivers in this age group are three times more likely to be killed in an automobile crash than people 25-64 years old (Lynch). As shown in Figure 4, crash risk is especially high during the first 6 months of unsupervised licensure (Lee, 2007). Understanding exactly why young drivers are so overly represented in the crash statistics is difficult to isolate, especially while the interactions between young drivers and new technology remains mostly unexplored. Even so, it is safe to conclude from the research that new drivers have difficulty with driving because of inexperience, risk-taking behavior, immaturity, and risk exposure (Lynch). Driving is a divided attention task requiring the driver to multi-task, which is a skill that one improves with experience. This is demonstrated also by figure four in the difference between the novice and learners (supervised) crash rates. The difference in crash rate is probably due to the restriction of exposure to risky situations and aid that is provided from the adult passenger assisting in much of the multi-tasking requirements. Figure 4 Crash rates for drivers under the supervision of an adult and during the first months of independent driving. (Source: Lee, 2007) A study by the Brain Trust Alliance published in 2006 suggests a possible explanation for why young drivers are overrepresented in crashes. The researchers found that the human brain continues to develop well past childhood into early adulthood, reaching maturity at around age 25 (see Figure 5). Different parts of the brain fully develop at different times. Specifically, the prefrontal cortex and parietal lobe are areas of the brain that are still developing through adolescence and the teen years. The prefrontal cortex controls planning, working memory, organization, risk management, self restraint and emotional control. The parietal lobe controls spatial perception and vision which gives the ability to interpret location, speed and distance. The researchers concluded that understanding the brain development is valuable in understanding why young drivers are at risk and the limitations that should be placed on them to reduce the risk. Specifically, the researchers suggest that the time young drivers are under supervised driving needs to be extended to give them the time they need to comprehend the risks of driving and responses for common driving situations. 3.2 Teen Driver and Cell Phone Distractions Technological distractions that tend to distract drivers, such as making phone calls, watching videos, corresponding through email, text messaging, and selecting and listening to music, are become more prolific and are alarmingly most popular with the younger drivers. All of these technologies have the ability to distract the driver; however the cell phone has attracted the most attention. Text messaging among young driver is especially alarming since 46 percent of drivers 16-17 years old admitted to driving while texting and since it not only requires cognitive resources, but it takes eyes off the road (Quain, 2007). In a 2007 study at the University of Iowa, the researchers concluded about young drivers that, â€Å"A high rate of early adoption of new technology, peer pressure, risk-taking tendencies, poor ability to detect and anticipate hazardous situations, and underdeveloped vehicle controls kills all leave young drivers particularly vulnerable to the distractions posed by the increasing variety of infotainment systems† (Lee, 2007). 3.3 Supervised Driving and Parental Involvement Young drivers, especially those recently licensed, who use cell phones compound their risks; intervention of some type is needed. A survey conducted by Allstate in February 2007 of parents of teen drivers found the following: Most parents (55 percent) said they wished they had more time to teach driving safety to their teens. Parents have the ability to influence their teen children’s’ driving in ways that no one else can. The Allstate survey shows that parents feel that teaching children how to drive safely is their responsibility and wish they had more time to teach and supervise their children. Graduated Drivers Licenses, a program to facilitate more parental involvement in a newly licensed teens driving development, are becoming more common throughout the United States. These alone, however, are proving to be insufficient to reduce the increased crash rate of young drivers. Teen driving contracts have been emphasized in many states as a way for parents to passively maintain interest in their teens’ driving behavior. A teen driving contract typically is a signed contract between parent and a teen that specifies the rules, expectations, and responsibilities for safe driving. A typical safe driving agreement covers cell phone use while driving, speeding, driving at night, carrying passengers, as well as seatbelt use. The privileges set out in the teen driving contracts are designed to be reviewed periodically and may be updated depending on how the parents feel the teen is performing (Michigan Secretary of State, 2007). 4. Legislative Attempts to Prevent Driver Cell Phone Use Although young drivers present a particularly urgent situation when it comes to cell phone use while driving, the issue is also a risky one for adult drivers. Either way, the literature and research suggest that something needs to be done to reduce the loss of life and money associated with cell phone use while driving. Numerous efforts are underway to keep drivers safe, including efforts from federal, state, and local agencies, parent groups, and schools. Governments have made various attempts through legislation to outlaw the use of cell phones while driving. This review has identified three reports on legislative efforts designed to help reduce crashes resulting from cell phone use and they are presented below: 4.1 New York State 2001 Hand-Held Cell Phone Ban In 2001, New York became the first state to adopt a law that bans the use of hand-held cell phone devices by all drivers. Prior to the law, the rate of drivers using cell phones was observed at 2.3 percent. Immediately after to several months after the enactment of the law, the observed cell phone use dropped by approximately 50 percent to 1.1 percent. By March of 2003, the rate of cell phone use had risen back up to 2.1 percent which almost matches that of the pre-ban rate. Between December of 2001 and January of 2003, only about two percent of the traffic citations issued in New York were for cell phone use even though a survey conducted by NHTSA of New York drivers showed that 30 percent admitted to still using their phones while driving. A possibility for the decline in effectiveness is the decline in media attention and enforcement since its inception (IIHS, 2003). 4.2 District of Columbia Distracted Driving Safety Act of 2005 In July 2005, the District of Columbia enacted the Distracted Driving Safety Act which prohibits all forms of inattentive driving that result in the unsafe operation of a motor vehicle including hand-held cell phones. Prior to the law, the rate of drivers using cell phones was observed at 6.1 percent. Shortly after the law took effect, the usage rate dropped to 3.5 percent. Interestingly, when the usage rate was measured a year after the law it had risen to four percent, but was still significantly lower than the preban rate. The introduction of this law also followed the typical pattern where a new law is introduced, compliance is at its highest and as time passes, the compliance drops off. Although the rise in usage a year after the introduction of the law was not as significant as that of the New York ban, it was still present. One possibility for this less significant return to pre-ban usage levels is the District of Columbia’s reputation for strict enforcement (McCartt, 2007). 4.3 North Carolina Under 18 Ban of Mobile Communication Devices In December 2006, North Carolina enacted a law that prohibited the use of any mobile communication device by drivers younger than 18 years old. Cell phone usage was observed at high schools prior to the law and five months after the law took effect. The cell phone usage prior to the law was observed at 11 percent. Cell phone usage five months after the law took effect was observed at 11.8 percent. As a control, cell phone usage in the adjacent state of South Carolina was observed over the same period of time and cell phone use there was steady at 13 percent over the observation time. Researchers conducted interviews of teen drivers in which 50 percent of the surveyed teens reported using their cell phones (post-ban) if they had driven the day prior to the survey. The conclusion of the researchers was that the cell phone law had little effect on teenage drivers’ use of cell phones (Foss, 2008). 5. Distance-Based Insurance Polices Keeping drivers safe behind the wheel is becoming an ever increasing priority as evidenced by the many new and innovative approaches to the problem. Solutions are being sought and in some cases found in areas of science, engineering, biomechanics, state-of-the-art safety designs, etc. The following review is based on a relatively new insurance concept called distance-based insurance. Vehicle insurance is typically based on a lump sum pricing method which translates to a fixed cost for each consumer regardless of how many miles a vehicle is driven. A lump-sum insurance policy will result in the same premium across a similar demographic, assuming that other aspects such as age, gender, location, driving records, etc. are the same. Consumers will not see any reduction in price if they reduce their yearly mileage which results in lower risk. Since the risk of collision and other policy claim related losses are dependent on how many miles the vehicle is driven, it seems unfair to apply a lump-sum pricing scheme to such a complex situation (Bordoff, 2008). In a paper written by Litman (1997) he makes a profound analogy of this situation to the sale of gasoline. If gasoline was sold by the car-year, vehicle owners would be required to make one lump-sum payment at the beginning of the year. This payment would allow the owner to fill the vehicle up with gasoline unlimited times throughout the year. Prices would be based on the average consumers’ use of gasoline in his/her demographic. Litman suggests that this unlimited distribution of gasoline would perpetuate an increase in fuel usage resulting in more miles driven, overall vehicle costs, congestion, pollution and increased accident risk. Consumers who use less fuel than the average would find the system wholly unfair and unaffordable and would not use it. Consumers who used more than the average would be in favor of the system because of the benefits it offers them. This system is obviously unreasonable, and anecdotally explains the limitations of our current lump-sum insurance system. In response to this problem, a new distance-based insurance pricing method has been suggested and is being implemented in some places. Distance based insurance policies are variable and are based on the vehicle-miles driven instead of the current practice of lump-sum policies. These policies are designed to better reflect the risk of consumers, since claims are generally proportional to miles driven (Bordoff, 2008). Figure 6 represents the average 2003 distribution of expenditures for ownership of an automobile in the United States. The percentage paid in insurance costs is 21 percent, a significant 13 amount. The benefits of distance-based insurance policies are many, but most importantly is that they more accurately reflect the customers’ mileage-based risk and give many consumers an opportunity to proportionally reduce their insurance rates. Figure 6 Average 2003 Distribution of Expenditures for Automobile Ownership in The United States. (Litman, 1997) Similar to how distance-based insurance pricing has revolutionized the way insurance premiums are being evaluated, safety-based driving systems can revolutionize how driving habits are reflected in insurance premiums. For example, cell phone use while driving increased the risk of collision. If a driver were to voluntarily participate in a program that restricted his/her cell phone use while driving, thereby reducing his/her risk of collision, that behavior could be rewarded by a lower insurance premium. This same methodology could be applied to any risky driving practice (i.e. speeding, teen driving at night, etc.) as reported to an insurance company through reliable technological methods. This, much like distance-based policies, would more accurately reflect the consumers’ safety risk and could result in lower insurance rates. Those who choose not to participate in the program would have to assume the average risk and associated premiums. This program would be a huge incentive for people to participate and subsequently drive safely. 6. Technological Methods for Improving Driving Safety 6.1. Active Safety Features through Vehicle-to-Vehicle and Vehicle-to-Infrastructure Comm. To help avoid car accidents and minimize harmful effects of accidents, many automotive manufacturers aim to provide active safety features such as: forward-looking speed radar, autopilot systems, lane departure warnings, integration of video cameras, collision alerts, situational awareness systems, active headlights, and vehicle-to-vehicle communications to name a few. The radar-based system can be used to help avoid or mitigate the effect of front-end collisions. A number of systems focus on how to utilize wireless vehicle-to-infrastructure communications to provide early warnings to drivers about potential hazards at intersections, where 40 percent of all traffic accidents and 20 percent of crash-related fatalities occur. Specific technologies designed to mitigate the use of cell phones by drivers are generally marketed toward the young driver because that is where the largest concern for safety is, as well as where the most potential improvements can be made. It is also the primary market because often these technologies require voluntary involvement where parents are more likely to involve their children than themselves. These devices are, relatively speaking, in their infancy. Many devices on the market seem to individually employ a portion of what is needed to be a complete and effective system, but each has its limitations. 6.2. GPS-based Driving Monitoring System Examples of a technologies used to monitor teens and provide a possible solution for talking while driving are the wide variety of Global Positioning System (GPS)-based monitoring systems. These systems use the GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) network to log the vehicle’s location and speed at regular intervals and allow downloading of the data for further analysis. Some advanced monitoring programs provide over-speed alerts and/or send data to a central computer or system through a wireless communication network for tracking teen drivers in real-time. It should be remarked that, in addition to the use of teen driver tracking, these kinds of GPS tracking systems have been successfully used for commercial fleet tracking and network-wide traffic monitoring. Similarly, the windshield camera produced by DriveCam Inc. can record the driving behavior and transmit digital images to a central data server for further analysis. The above-mentioned (passive monitoring) systems, however, are not seamlessly integrated with cell phones, so none of them can actively prevent the use of cell phones even when the vehicle is in motion. They provide only an opportunity for the monitor to give post-violation advice and instruction to the teens, when it might be too late. 6.3. Cell Phone Based Context Identification Currently, mobile phone usage is no longer limited to making and receiving calls, both GPS and accelerometer sensors have been widely supported in the next generation of mobile phones. For example, both GPS and accelerometer sensors have been installed in iPhone 3G smart phones from Apple Inc., and 50 percent of Nokia mobile phones shipped in 2009 will be GPS-enabled. A number of studies aim to utilize embedded sensors in the next generation of mobile phones, specifically GPS and accelerometer sensors to discover and take advantage of contextual information such as user location, time of day, as well as the type of activity the user is involved in, such as walking, driving, or standing still. This contextual information can be used to alter the phone’s status creating a â€Å"smart† phone that is safer and/or more user friendly. Chen and Kotz (2000) provided a comprehensive survey on context-aware mobile computing research. They suggest that although context-awareness is a widely researched topic, there are still areas that could be further explored. The authors specifically highlight the need to further develop the awareness, communication, and use of context-based computing as having the most potential to benefit society. The application of contextual information to cell phones is critically important because it determines what the user is doing, and thereby when to alter the phone status. SenSay is one recent application (Siewiorek et al., 2003) that integrates contextual information with cell phone use. Combining a cell phone with sensory data, user information, and user history, the researchers were able to provide a context aware phone that improves its overall usability. For example, the phone is able to change ringer volume and vibration, and further provide dynamic phone alerts and call handling depending on the users’ activity. The real-world application of this device is limited because of peripherally needed devices, but the integration of this type of context sensing devices within phones holds great potentials. In a GSM or 3G networks, triangulation among two or more cellular towers, signal strength fluctuations, and changes to the current serving cell phone towers can be also used to estimate the context of cell phone users (e.g. study by Anderson and Muller in 2006). The result of context identification, including the speed of moving cell phones, can be used to distinguish driving vs. walking or remaining still. This contextual information can be used to prevent risky driving behaviors, such as talking while driving and texting while driving. However, as shown in a study by Smith et al. (2004), the existing cell phone-based speed estimation results are less accurate when compared to GPS-based methods. These results are exaggerated during periods of congested traffic or stop-and-go traffic on arterial streets. This review was able to identify various devices for sale that are marketed toward teen drivers all with the purpose of monitoring and or reducing poor driving habits. These devices are tools which parents can use to monitor, advise, and teach their children long after the learner and graduated driving experiences have passed. Several companies currently offering some of these devices were contacted and asked if there were any studies or research that had been done showing the effectiveness of their products. The companies responded that studies have been done, but that the results were proprietary because they had been financed by insurance companies. 7. Economic Analysis of Restricting Cell Phone Use Although there is sufficient data to prove that cell phone use while driving increases the risk of crashes, complete restriction of cell phones by drivers has been controversial in part because of the benefits consumers and society receive from these calls and because the exact number of crashes caused by cell phone use are unknown. Several researchers have attempted to quantity these values by comparing the total societal cost of crashes caused by cell phone use to the benefits society receives from the same. The results of three such studies are listed below: Hahn and Tetlock (1999): A complete ban on cell phones by drivers would result in a societal loss of $23 billion annually. Redelmeier and Weinstein (1999): A complete ban on cell phones by drivers would result in a societal loss of $300,000 annually. Cohen and Graham (2003): A complete ban on cell phones by drivers would result in a net societal loss of zero. The Cohen and Graham study was a re-analysis of the Hahn and Tetlock study with updated estimates and more comprehensive analysis. Because the exact numbers of crashes that are caused by cell phone use is unknown and it is difficult to quantify the value of cell phone use in society, these variables needed to be estimated in the analyses. The variability between the three estimates shows how the results are highly dependent on the estimation of these variables. In a Study by Martin et al. (2006), researchers analyzed the impact cell phone use by drivers had on traffic flow. A â€Å"car following behavior† was identified by simulated driving for both the non cell phone user and the cell phone user. The researchers then used these â€Å"car following behavior† models and through simulation and microscopic traffic modeling, were able to identify the impact that cell phone users had on the traffic stream efficiency. The research found that with different traffic conditions and varying percentages of cell phone users, cell phone usage while driving had a negative impact on traffic flow when traffic volumes were moderate or high. Converting these delays into monetary units, the researchers were able to project the cost of the delays caused by cell phone users throughout the entire United States highway network as significant. 8. Findings and Recommendations Distracted driving has been a public concern ever since the beginning of the automobile. Cell phone use by drivers is widespread. Intuitively, one understands that cell phone use while driving is distracting and dangerous, and many studies have proven that instinct to be true. Experimental and behavioral studies have drawn an unambiguous conclusion that cell phone use by drivers results in a cognitive distraction leading to an increased risk of collision. Studies have also been able to quantify this risk as at least as dangerous as driving while impaired by alcohol at the legal limit of .08 mg/ml. Epidemiological examination of actual crash data compared against cell phone records provides confirmation that driving while using a cell phone increases the risk of collision. In the epidemiological studies reviewed in this paper, the increased risk of collision when using a cell phone while driving was found to be between 1.3 and 5.59 times greater than non-users. Real-world data, although scarce, has also confirmed that cell phone use while driving is the single largest driver distraction leading to collisions. Studies are mounting that show an obvious correlation between cell phone use while driving and increased crash risk. The association between cell phone use and increased risk of traffic crashes seems to be validated by epidemiological, behavior, experimental and real-world studies, but the actual number of crashes directly related to cell phone use is harder to determine. Because the exact number of crashes directly related to cell phone use is unknown, the likely financial savings to United States drivers for outlawing cell phone use while driving is also uncertain. Other important findings are listed as follows: (1) Government at all levels has tried to legislate a solution for this problem with poor results, (2) Young drivers are especially susceptible to the danger of cell phone use while driving because they are already overrepresented in the crash statistics, (3) Technology is intervening where legislation has failed to provide solutions to the problem of cell phone use while driving. To improve driving safety in general, and to prevent talking on cell phones while driving in particular, the following initiatives and innovations are critically needed. 1) Accurate reporting of cell phone involvement in collisions on police reports The underreporting of cell phone involvement in collisions on police reports, the best indicator of how many collisions are directly related to cell phone use, has proven to be significant. This is worrisome because many legislative efforts to stop the use of cell phones by drivers are based at least partly on this data. Legislative efforts in themselves have shown to be minimally effective to statistically ineffective in curbing the use of cell phones by drivers. Several government agencies have nonetheless continued seeking for some type of solution to this problem. 2) Technological solutions for accurately identifying driving mode of cell phone users A wide variety of research has been devoted to mobile phone-based context identification by GPS, triangulation, or signal strength. Despite considerable research efforts, the technology remains insufficient to properly distinguish the exact mode of cell phone uses such as driving, walking, or remaining still. Even with all the available location and movement data, it is still extremely difficult to distinguish if a cell phone user is driving a car, seating as a passenger, or riding a bus or train. Inaccurate context identification could lead to problematic disabling of the communication capability when a cell phone user is not driving a car. Additional research is still needed in the area of artificial intelligence to improve the context estimation accuracy. 3) Integrated driving monitoring system There are many products that have been designed to address the problem of cell phone use by young drivers. Some existing context based technologies are designed to passively monitor an individual’s driving by recording their movements and making them available for download at another time. Some advanced monitoring technologies allow for real-time alerts to be sent to a central computer or by text message through wireless communications. These technologies can give real-time information to parents about safety concerns, but fail to provide any way of actively preventing the dangers from happening. The need for a context based solution that also allows for active prevention of cell phone use while driving is apparent. 4) Safety-based insurance policies Distance-based insurance policies have revolutionized the way automobile insurance is evaluated. Distance-based policies are more reflective of the individual mile-based risk and result in more fitting premiums. As distance-based insurance policies have changed how we think about insurance, so can safety-based insurance policies. If a driving safety profile could be determined for an individual consumer, insurance rates could be tailored to better reflect the individuals collision risk. This method could help further reflect a driver’s risk and in many cases lower the insurance premiums or be an incentive for aggressive or inexperienced drivers to drive safely. 5) Cost-effective car safety features Automotive manufacturers are engaged in the design of safety features on vehicles, which are intended to enhance the driver’s ability to avoid collisions. Some of the state-of-the-art safety features that are being explored by the automobile manufacturers are: forward-looking speed radar, autopilot systems, lane departure warnings, integration of video cameras, collision alerts, situational awareness systems, active headlights, and vehicle-to-vehicle communications. Automotive manufacturers have the objective of creating a â€Å"smart† car through the integration of technology. The â€Å"smart† call will be designed to enhance the driver’s ability to avoid collisions, but the driver will still maintain control. These devices, although potentially very effective in reducing vehicle collisions, fail to address the problem of cell phone use by drivers. Automotive attempts at collision avoidance systems are also relatively expensive and in some cases are limited by participation and communication between vehicles. The complete restriction of cell phone use by drivers seems to be unlikely because of the lack of concrete evidence showing how many crashes are caused by cell phone use, and what the cost of such a ban would be. Short of a complete restriction, a technology that would self-impose restrictions or that could be tailored to the most dangerous demographic of young drivers becomes most probable. A technological solution that is practical, effective, context-based, cost-effective, and focused on the driver’s actions is critically needed. References Allstate Foundation. (February 2007). Parents and teen driving safety quantitative study. Retrieved October, 2008, from Allstate: http://www.allstate.com/content/refreshattachments/citizenship/Teen_driver_Parent_Survey_Findings_2007.pdf Anderson, I. M. (2006). Practical activity recognition using GSM data. University of Bristol UK, Department of Computer Science. Beirness, D. J. (2002). The road safety monitor 2002. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada: Traffic Injury Research Foundation. Bordoff, J. P. (2008). Pay-as-you-drive auto insurance: A simple way to reduce driving-related harms and increase equitey. Discussion Paper, The Brookings Institute, The Hamilton Project. Brain Trust Alliance. (2006). Teen brain at the wheel: when is the teen brain â€Å"developmentally ready† for the road. Retrieved November, 2008, from Nebraska Department of Roads: http://www.dor.state.ne.us/safetysummit/2007-presentations/Karen%20Williams%20%20Teen%20Brain%20at%20the%20Wheel%20%20Brain%20Development%20and%20Driving%20.pdf Bunkley, N. (2008. February 12). Retrieved October 2008, from New York Times: http://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/12/business/12distract.html?_r=1&scp=1&sq=HighTech%20Invitations%20Take%20Your%20Mind%20Off%20Road&st=cse Burns, P. C., et.al. (2002). How dangerous is driving with a mobile phone? Benchmarking the impairment to alcohol. Crowthorne, Berkshire, Transport Research Laboratory TRL, 2002, IV + 56 p., 29 ref.; TRL Report ; No. 547 – ISSN 0968-4107. Chen, G. K. (2000). A survey of context-aware mobile computing research. Dartmouth Computer Science Technical Report TR2000-381. Cohen, J. T. (2003). A revised economic analysis of restrictions on the use of cell phones while driving. Risk Analysis , 23 (1). Foss, R. G. (2008). Short-term effects of a teenage driver cell phone restriction. Insurance Institute For Highway Safety. Hahn, R. T. (1999). The economics of regulating cellular phones in vehicles. American Enterprise Institute-Brookings Joint Center for Regulatory Studies., Washington D.C. IIHS. (2003, August) Hand-held cell phone use goes back up in New York, despite year-long ban. Status Report , 38(8), 6-7. IIHS. (2008, September). Cell phone users admit to driving while distracted. Status Report , 43 (7), 6-7. IIHS. (2006, January). Phoning while driving increase year by year, even as evidence of the risk accumulates. Status Report , 41 (1), 4-7. IIHS. (2008, September). Q&As: cellphones and driving. Retrieved October 2008, from Status Report Newsletter. Just, M. A. (2008, December). A decrease in brain activation associated with driving when listening to someone speak. Brain Research , 70-80. Laberge-Nadeau, C. A. (2001). Wireless telephones and the risk of road accidents. Montreal, Quebec, Canada: Laboratoire sur la securite des transports. Lee, J. (2007). Technology and teen drivers. Journal of Safety Research , 38 (203-213), 203-13. Litman, T. (1997). Distance-based vehicle insurance as a TDM strategy. Transportation quarterly , 51 (3), 119-138. Lynch, S. (2005) Teenage drivers. Daytona Beach, FL: APCO Institute, Inc. Retrieved November, 2008, from APCO Institute: http://apco911.org/institute/emd_pdf/TeenDrivers.pdf. Martin, P. V. et al. (2006). The impact of drivers making cell phone conversations on the traffic efficeiency of urban freeways. Final Report, University of Utah, Traffic Laboratory. McCartt, A. O. (2007). Cell Phones and Crash Risk. Insurance Institute For Highway Safety. Michigan Secretary of State. (2007, July). Retrieved 11 2008, from Michigan’s graduated driver licensing: A guide for parents: http://www.michigan.gov/documents/gdl_parent_16316_7.pdf National Transporation Safety Board. (2006, November 21). NTSB recommends ban on cell phone use by bus drivers. Retrieved October 2008, from http://www.ntsb.gov/pressrel/2006/061121a.htm National Transportaion Safety Board. (2008, October 28). NTSB adds restricted cell phone use†¦to 2009 most wanted list of safety improvements. Retrieved November 2008, from www.ntsb.gov/pressrel/2008/081028.html Olson, E. (2007, November 3). Retrieved October 2008, from New York Times: http://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/03/business/yourmoney/03money.html Ontario Medical Association. (2008). Cellular phone use and driving: a dangerous combination. Retrieved November, 2008, from Ontario Medical Association: http://www.oma.org/health/reports/CellphonesDrivingSafetySept08.pdf Quain, J. R. (2007, December 23). Retrieved October 2008, from New York Times: www.nytimes.com/2007/12/23/automobiles/23talk.html Redelmeier, D. W. (1999). Cost-effectiveness of regulations against using a cellular telephone while driving. Medical Decision Making , 19, 1-8. Redelmeir, D. A. (1997). Association between cellular-telephone calls and motor vehicle collisions. The New England Journal of Medicine , 336 (7), 453-8.

Reading Comprehension Essay

Reading comprehension is a valuable and necessary tool in the learning process. It allows the reader to expand his vocabulary, understand the text he is reading, and use various strategies as he might need them in order to improve learning. It is necessary because it shapes the reader’s understanding of ideas and words. It assists his ability to make sense of ideas and concepts. It can even affect various parts of public life, such as the political arena. In assessing the reader’s state of reading comprehension, there are three levels: literal, interpretive, and applied. If the reader is not satisfied with his own level of reading comprehension, all is not lost. There are means by which to improve it. These include growing one’s vocabulary, utilizing multiple senses, and changing one’s reading speed. All of these tools serve to advance the learning process. In order for one to understand the value reading comprehension possesses, one must first understand what it is. Reading comprehension is â€Å"the process of understanding or making meaning when reading† (Elish-Piper, 2010). The reader can use what he knows to get a grasp of the material he is reading. For example, a large vocabulary—understanding the meanings of many words—can help someone understand a wide variety of texts. The text can usually be placed into a specific category. For example, a novel about an unsolved crime would be in the category of a mystery. The reader can then place the text into a proper context. For the purposes of our mystery novel, it could be for the reader’s own enjoyment, or perhaps an assignment for a college course. Elish-Piper asserts that â€Å"when the reader is able to connect these three key components,† it is much easier for that person to comprehend what he is reading. If the reader needs to, he can use strategies to help comprehend the text better. Elish-Piper also gives ideas for those strategies. With our mystery novel example, the reader could identify the â€Å"basic elements† of the story, which are present with any novel. These include plot, setting, and the main characters. Putting one’s self in the position of characters in the text could also help. Asking questions periodically is also a positive way of self-checking for knowledge and comprehension of the text. One might ask why this comprehension is so important. The very definition of reading comprehension serves to help answer that question. If the reader does not understand what he is reading, he probably is not gaining anything from it. It would be tantamount to staring at a book written in a foreign language. Learning does not happen by osmosis; it happens through understanding. It also allows us to make sense of ideas and concepts. The wider the variety of texts one has read and comprehended, the more knowledge that person has gained. A person with increased knowledge, therefore, understands more ideas and concepts than he did before. This can impact a wide variety of areas. It can even effect areas of public policy. Politicians pass laws, and these laws are (obviously) comprised of words. In order for these leaders to understand how their legislation will affect their intended group, they have to understand what they are writing and reading. Beyond this, policy itself is sometimes designed to shape the practice of education—and thus reading comprehension itself. Over the past years, policy makers have utilized â€Å"assessment data† in the various field of education, including reading comprehension, for â€Å"education purposes† (Moskowitz & Stephens, 2004). In supplement to policy makers, educators have their own views on reading comprehension. There are three levels of reading comprehension (Gambrell, Morrow, & Pressley, 2007). The first level is â€Å"literal. † Literal reading comprehension is the understanding of the base of what is in the text. It is the most basic level and includes items that are generally not left up to interpretation. These can include names, dates, places, and the like. The second level of reading comprehension is â€Å"interpretive. † This type of reading comprehension is not concerned so much with what is actually present, but rather, what one can gather. Reading between the lines and drawing from the reader’s own knowledge, and answering subjective questions, helps. Finally, the third and most advanced level of reading comprehension is â€Å"applied. † Bluntly, this level allows the reader to utilize what is present in the text, make sense of it using context clues, and then using the knowledge gained to learn and understand concepts and ideas outside the scope of the text at hand. Perhaps the reader is not satisfied with his level of reading comprehension. All is not lost; there are means to improve. The most obvious way to improve reading comprehension is to grow one’s vocabulary. It is never too late to learn new words. However, there is more that one can do than the obvious. Using multiple senses is an out-of-the-box way to understand new material. Combining visual and auditory senses is a helpful way to increase comprehension (Woolley, 2010). The reader can use his imagination to set the scene in the text and then read the text aloud or listen to an audio book. Making an outline of the crucial points of the text and then reading that aloud is another way to reiterate key points. Moreover, reading slowly with a purpose as opposed to reading for speed is another way to be sure the reader understands details (Newkirk, 2010). â€Å"Slowing down,† â€Å"memorizing,† and â€Å"savoring passages† are steps in this beneficial process. No matter one’s level of education, reading comprehension is an invaluable tool for success in life. Once a reader understands what reading comprehension is, he can assess his level of comprehension, and then take one or more of a large number of steps to increase his ability. This, in turn, will help him be able to make sense of the world around him, and thus, put himself in a better position to succeed with whatever he does. References Elish-Piper, L. (2010). Understanding reading comprehension: Information and ideas for parents about reading comprehension. Illinois Reading Council Journal, 38 (3). 49-52. Gambrell, L. B. , Morrow, L. M. , & Pressley, M. (2007). Best practices in literacy instruction. New York, NY: Guilford Press. Moskowitz, J. H. & Stephens, M. (2004). Comparing learning outcomes: International assessments and education policy. London: RoutledgeFalmer. Newkirk, T. (2010, March). The case for slow reading. Educational Leadership, 67 (6). 6. Woolley, G. (2010, June). Developing reading comprehension: Combining visual and verbal cognitive processes. Australian Journal of Language & Literacy, 33 (2). 108-125.

Marketing Law and Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Marketing Law and Ethics - Essay Example Marketing has become an authority in the society. It shows people the way to become models; images they see in various advertisements. The marketer tells us; buy it, use it. They also tell us; we can buy success, happiness and love with the advertised products, service and brands so that consumer also buys the life-style with the product. The advertisements have become the role of educators and family. While watching these advertisements, consumer compares the life he is watching and his own life and finds his life ordinary and meaningless. Because of this reason, the advertisements became an imitated model ethic is known as moral values and plays a role as social rules in a society. In today's world, in marketing, through advertisements the messages are given with help of the cultural differences, social class differences; also using color differences as a tool, so it is one of the biggest arguments of ethic. The most definite dilemma of modern-day advertising is its manipulation on the individual and societal growth, significance in formation of people's values in rapidly globalizing world. At the same time, mounting globalization process grounds seriously the query about the social accountability of business need essential deliberation of long-term benefit of consumers and society as a whole. It is important to note the reciprocity of advertising technological development process and scrutinizing of human rights and standards of living in the society. In other words, transformation in one way requires immediate change in other (Harris 2001). The world of advertising, made up of advertisers, agencies, the media and the various specialized services, constitutes an environment which is in a constant state of flux; examples include new marketing and advertising techniques, changing markets, changing consumer requirements, new products, new media and a constant turnover of staff. As well as the whole commerce industry, marketing has its own ethical problems. Several marketing experts or their representatives have deliberately confirmed and implemented different activities, assertions or set of laws concerning the requirement that marketing people believe ethics regulations and values, so that they become much more responsible towards the members of society (Brassington & Pettitt 2003). Most controversial cases in the legal system are the discrimination cases which base their allegations on race, color, gender, sexual orientation,national origin and religion, age. For years the mainstream media has cleanly pushed the idea that being darker as a person of color is thought to be inferior. Discrimination has diffused onto a wider massive scale. In an undeniably capitalist society, leading marketers and entrepreneurs use subtle suggestive means to accomplish their selfish, profitable motives. As in the case of promotional campaign of the world's largest cosmetics firm, based in France, L'Oreal, which specializes in perfumes, beauty aids, and related products. The ad-campaign featuring pop-star Beyonce Knowles for this cosmetics giant shows that all is not well with the face of its promotion. The company was accused of whitening Beyonce Knowles who has been the L'Oral Paris brand ambassador since 2001. The contract signed between the cosmetics company and the singer in 2001, was worth 2.4m ($4.7m) for five years. The contract stipulated that the singer had to work 10

Abortion Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Abortion - Assignment Example However, the main contention arises in an unusual circumstance, for example, when the mother’s life is at risk because of pregnancy condition or a pregnancy resulting from rape. These two scenarios develop a challenge on the first premise because it becomes difficult to measure and uphold the mother‘s right to life or that of the foetus. It follows that the child is considered as being innocent and the innocent life should not be terminated. Contrariwise, the mother’s life is at jeopardy and not committing abortion would not result in direct murder. This the author argues as a fallacious point due the risk the unborn child poses to the mother and in such a circumstance, abortion should be permitted. The second scenario arises when a woman is raped and in that instance, the pregnancy is not a result of self-will (Thomson 122). The pregnancy exists without the consent of the mother and abortion should be allowed according to the wishes of the mother. Nonetheless, in circumstances where the mother’s life is not at risk and the pregnancy occurred with the consent of the mother, abortion should not be allowed. The first argument fronted by Warren touches on the number of deaths recorded in instances where women procure illegal abortions. Illegal and informal abortions pose a great threat to the life of the mother and a threat to the society that loses its members. It is direct that pregnancies resulting from rape and incidents of unwanted pregnancies, abortion is a solution because the woman was not in control of the predicament she faces. However, in other circumstances the woman has the ability of avoiding pregnancy, but fails due to the lack of using contraceptives or the utter failure of contraceptives taken religiously. This circumstances result in unwanted pregnancies and the woman should not be forced to carry and take responsibility of a supposed person they lack any level of obligation (Thomson 128). The author argues based on rights

SUDAN Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

SUDAN - Essay Example While rainfall is rare in the north, the southern region gets rainfall in plenty. The country also has a variety of wildlife that includes hippopotamus, crocodiles, elephants, birds and reptiles. The capital city is Khartoum and along with Khartoum North and Omdurman, they form the urban center. The government and commerce are centered in Khartoum, and Omdurman is the official capital of Sudan. North Khartoum harbors a majority of the industries in Sudan. With a population of 33.5 million, about 52 % of the population is black, 39 % are Arab, 6 % are Beja, 2 % foreign and the remaining 1 % are from other ethnic populations (Culture of Sudan; About the Republic of Sudan). Sudan also has about 597 tribes in which more than 400 different languages and dialects are spoken (About the Republic of Sudan). The average growth rate is at 3% and there is also a steady migration of people from rural to urban areas. Arabic is the official language which is spoken by a majority of the population, apart from which there are nearly 100 different languages which are spoken by the indigenous populations. English is taught as a foreign language at schools. The Sudanese government is an authoritarian government in which all the powers are vested on the President and the ruling National Congress Party (NCP). The current President Omar-al-Bashir ousted the political government lead by the Prime Minister in 1989 and transformed Sudan into an Islamic authoritarian state through the creation of the National Islamic Front (NIF) which is the most powerful political organization in Sudan. Following an internal civil war the southern region of Sudan has been granted autonomy with the Sudan People’s Liberation Army (SPLA) as the most important political organization (Culture of Sudan; About the Republic of Sudan). The most widely practiced religion is Islam with nearly 70 % of the population being Sunni Muslims. While 25% follow indigenous beliefs

Dorothea Lange Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Dorothea Lange - Research Paper Example n, a face marked with wrinkles and a distant gaze seemingly full of worries; to the right and left are her children leaning against her shoulders while a baby sleeping on her lap, seemed to portray vulnerable people seeking protection amidst struggle and hopelessness. This highly concentrated, tightly composed image has been one of the most famous and most frequently published photograph of the FSA project and made Lange an eminent documentary photographer of her time (â€Å"Dorothea Lange†). Her work poignantly captured the depths of the Great Depression era by asserting the challenges of rural poverty through photographs and doing reports on the plights of poor farmers and migrant workers. Being a social realism photographer of the early 20th century, Lange once reflected â€Å"No country has ever closely scrutinized itself visually...I know what we could make of it if people only thought we could dare to look at ourselves† (qtd. in

Technical choice of dam materials and their environmental impacts Essay

Technical choice of dam materials and their environmental impacts - Essay Example is indispensable that technological advancements alongside scientific innovations have immensely contributed towards making life what it is at present. The field of geotechnical engineering has not lacked behind either. As early as the fourth century BC, the Chinese had discovered that they could use drilling fluids, which was in the form of water, to permeate grounds in such of hydrocarbons (Veil, J, 2002). A drilling fluid, in this respect, is a kind of fluid often used in drilling boreholes on the earth surface such as water wells (Zupan, T, & Kapila, M, 2000). Over time, drilling of deeper and challenging wells necessitated improvements to be implemented in the drilling technology. This led to a somewhat increased efficient and effective fluid for drilling (Wait, S, &Thomas, D, 2003). Since then, the drilling fluids have been adopted in drilling of the natural gas and oil wells, as well as in exploration of the drilling rigs. Drilling mud, on the other hand, is a type of drilling fluid that is in the form of liquid. This liquid is often added into the wellbore to aid in the drilling process (Talal, Y, & Al-Awad, J, 2004). It does so through controlling pressure, provision of buoyancy, stabilization of the given exposed rocks, suspension of the cuttings, cooling the rock and making sure the rock is well lubricated (Stephenson, R, & Seaton, D, 2004). In essence, drilling fluids are vital elements for the whole drilling process that is for maximization of the recovery, as well as reducing on the amount of time required to get the first oil. The drilling fluid falls into three main categories (Omar, A, & Al-Awad, J, 2002). They include water-based muds, non-aqueous muds and the gaseous liquid fluid. Water-based muds can either be categorized as dispersed or... This paper Technical choice of dam materials and their environmental impacts seeks to unveil key issues on matters pertaining the link between, drilling fluid and oil recovery in homogenous reservoirs. It seeks to suggest better ways of utilizing the current drilling fluids in the recovery of oil, as well as future methods that are better suited in the exploration of oil. The Influence of drilling fluid on oil recovery literature contains results of many research projects that were contacted over a period of time. It is evident that the total number of such publications is quite overwhelming, although this does not mean that all the pertinent publication were reviewed, though none of those that were applicable and useful to this work were excluded intentionally. Difficulties that were encountered in review of literature are an attempt to develop the relationship between the two parameters. Initially there has been an attempt to quantify the existing relationship between the use of dr illing fluid and the oil recovery in homogenous reservoirs. Most of these studies were centered on issues that are related with the offshore drilling operations rather than how drilling fluid influences oil recovery on the homogenous reservoirs. In this study it is expected that the results indicate that there is a positive correlation between drilling fluid use and oil recovery in homogenous rocks. Earlier works by Bobik, and Deneki, concluded that the use of drilling fluid increases the recovery of oil in homogenous reservoirs.

Financial Risk Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Financial Risk Management - Essay Example The paper would be reflecting the financial risk rising from various perspectives i.e. personal level, institutional level followed by financial risk from the perspective of Islamic religion. Risk management is an essential activity for controlling and eliminating the financial risks in the aforementioned viewpoints. The paper would be discussing the risk management procedures found effective in each of these perspectives. Table of Contents Abstract 2 Table of Contents 3 Personal Risk Management 4 Financial Risk management in Financial Institutions 6 Financial Risk Management: An Islamic View 9 Is the Financial Risk Management Applied 11 Conclusion 12 References 13 Personal Risk Management Risk management should be the main focus point of the financial plan of the investors. There are some investors who do not focus on this aspect of the investment procedure. There are various risks associated with the investment procedure. The first risk is referred as the performance risk. The inve stors need to have diversified portfolio for reducing the performance risk. The second risk involves the volatility risk. The asset classes such as equity and gold tend to give high return on investment in the context of long term period. But it becomes necessary to reduce the volatility risk in the short term and medium term period. The third risk is associated with risk of inflation. This is one of the biggest risks for any long term investor. The asset allocation should be done in such manner that it would be able to beat the inflation over any period of time. In today’s world, making investment has become one of the most important activities in life for every individual. In such case, it is pertinent that all the investors should possess knowledge to certain extent related to the investment risk management. Financial risk management can be explained as a procedure of dealing with uncertainties arising in the financial markets. While the financial institutes handle very co mplex series of procedures for managing the risk, the individuals are required to have knowledge about risk management as well. The individuals need to: 1) Understand the risk tolerance in both emotional and financial terms. 2) Understand personal level of the risk tolerance. 3) Assess and compare the personal risk capacity with the risk tolerance. 4) Identify an effective asset allocation investment portfolio. The aforementioned framework provides a guideline of the understanding of risks, managing them and making effective investment decisions. Risk capacity and risk tolerance are two important attributes associated highly with the risk factor. Risk tolerance can be described as the psychological or emotional attribute and risk capacity can be defined as the financial attribute of the risk factor. Risk Tolerance The fundamental explanation of the term ‘risk’ is the chance of losing something. In investment decision, there remain chances of losing money as well. With g reater probability of big profits, prospect of the losses to take place remains higher. Thus it becomes important to carefully consider the risk tolerance while planning for an investment strategy. Risk tolerance determines the psychological receptiveness of an individual associated with the risk and level of anxiety experienced in various situations where the risk factor is evident. It

Future of Project Management Team Performance Essay

Future of Project Management Team Performance - Essay Example Presently the HP organization is engaged in streamlining process. With the increase in collaborative activities around the world, the works of companies are outsourced to various service providers in a bid to lower the cost (Mullaney, Stubbings and Clarke, 2013). Until now, most of the HP team members had to work  in  one place and route their communication through  landlines  and direct meetings with colleagues.  With advanced research and development of  technology in the Internet and others, it is easy to contact any person and share the requisite information.   The requirement of the technology is limited to the smart phone or any wired device for connection with  the Internet.   As HP is a largest technology company  around  the world and requires  a constant  inflow of knowledge workers, who are experts in current technologies employed  at  the company and  have the capability of assimilation of the continuous innovation. With the continuous research and development in  communication  technology, employees of HP are able to work and  communicate  to  their colleagues and office people with various electronic devices. So, it is possible for them to work from home or any other premises. This facility has facilitated the engagement of talented workforce  that is not locally available.  With  technological improvement, HP has started implementation of flexibility in work in various offices.   With continuous development and improvement in knowledge,  it is imperative that, the project management team should be trained in contemporary styles regularly.  This is also true about various types of certifications that are needed to keep the edge in the changing market. HP continues to implement the policy regarding the training  to  their employees with contemporary knowledge and certifications (Stanleigh, 2015).   It is a fact that with time, everything changes including trends in the workplace. With ongoing research in  the

How to reflate Frances economy Essay Example for Free

How to reflate Frances economy Essay Introduction There are two different ways to help France’s economy get back on track. They are austerity and growth. Austerity programs consist in a set of policies established by governments in financial debt difficulties. These policies aim to reduce spending for public goods and services. (Example in France, with president Sarkozy, approximately 150.000 civil servants were fired, this decreased the amount of money used to pay civil servants in France, which in turn, made it possible to run the country without having to borrow as much money). Growth programs consist in increasing the GDP and spending money, to reflate the economy. Of course this money has to come from somewhere, so growth programs often include imposing a lot of taxes. (Example in France, with president Hollande, taxes were imposed on bank profits, and taxes on the richest part of the population were increased). Economists are very divided on this subject, and both of theoretically work; it depends of the situation we are in. Economic Program Austerity is a short term solution only; a country’s economy cannot rely on it forever. This is why as a president; it would be good to start by making the debt of France smaller, then using this to our advantage, and Firstly, we have to make France more competitive. To do this, we will change the work time of the French, and their minimum age of retirement. Today, the French work on a minimum basis of 35 hours per week, and retire at a minimum age of 60. To make France more competitive, we will change these to 40 hours, and an age of 64. The average life span keeps on rising thanks to better health care; it would only go well for the economy if people were to work a few years more, because there would be less to pay for people who work. The 40 hours will be payed the same, because if there were the same amount of workers in a company but all of them had to be payed more, the company in question would either lose money in paying them, or fire a part of them. To increase competitivity, we have to make the price of production in France lower, so that fewer companies send their production in China for example. To do so, we have to lower the national insurance contribution payed by the employer to pay his workers in France. Products that are made in France will therefore be more expensive because the workers are payed in France than in China for example. To counter this, we will add a tax on products (depending on the price of the product) made in countries that have very cheap labor. (China, Vietnam, Turkey, Thailand, etc†¦) This will bring part of the production back to France, and the loss of money in the lowering of the national insurance contribution will be compensated by the tax. Next, we will reduce the salaries of the ministers and the president. The salaries of the ministers is now of 9940 euros (Under president Hollande), which will be reduced by 30%, leaving them with 6660 euros per month. The salary of the president is now of 14 910 euros (Under president Hollande); it will be reduced by 40%, leaving the president with 8950 euros per month. We would also stop having mayors in every single city, and do like in the U.S.A, which is to instate a governor for each department. This governor would be in charge of all the cities in his department, and when a decision is to be made, 20 inhabitants of the department will be called, to hold a â€Å"committee† and make the decision. It will be a duty, which means the inhabitants will have to go. This will help the economy, as there will be only one person to pay per department, and not dozens of mayors, it also gives a â€Å"voice† to the citizens in decision making. There are many people who are unemployed in France (10%) and receive unemployment benefit for a very long time, without trying to find work. As this does not motivate them to find one because they receive money without doing anything, we will keep on giving this unemployment benefit, but only for 2 months, the time for them to find work. This reform will motivate them to find work, this way they will be productive, therefore helping a company or industry to grow, and money will not be wasted. This change will of course also make unemployment decrease. Small companies are very important to the economy, as they might end up as the next multinationals, but they are heavily taxed, which makes them very hard for them to grow. If we make these taxes smaller, people would be encouraged to start their own companies, and this will create employment. Small companies that are already created will grow faster, and will create jobs, which will make the company itself more productive. These jobs will be there for the population receiving unemployment benefit. There will be a loss if we just relieve taxes on small companies, so we will compensate this by taxing bigger companies, which have already emerged, because they will not be affected by a tax as much as a small company. (The tax in question will not be too strong; it will just be enough to compensate for the loss in the tax relief on smaller companies) Education is a very important part of the French economy. Schools are here to â€Å"train† the future generations of workers. Access to education is free today in France, but the quality of this education is sometimes questionable. Firstly, there are not enough professors in the schools. It is logical that if there were to be one professor for 25 students, the quality of the education they would receive would be better than today, where we have in average one professor for 30 students. To compensate this lack of professors in schools, we will create 12000 jobs for professors in school; this will make the student/professor ratio smaller, which will increase the quality of the education received. To become a professor, you have to be â€Å"trained† two years in a university. This is not enough, considering the disciplinary problems in some schools. Professors should have 3 years of complete training, which would include a deeper disciplinary course, teaching methods, etc†¦ The principal sectors of production of France are agriculture, energy, tourism, trade and industry (France is one of the first industrial powers worldwide). Mass market retailing is choking the sector of trade, as it attracts the clients of little traders and makes mass profit out of it; it also allows itself to buy products at very low prices from producers (Farmers in the case of a supermarket). To resolve this problem, we would add a tax on products bought in mass market retailing services, which would bring clients back to the little traders, so that they don’t die out. Little trades do not buy products as low priced as supermarkets do, which would make money for producers. In the case of a supermarket, the trade and agriculture sector would both benefit from this tax. A French household produces in average 16.4 tons of Co2 every year; this is far too much. To avoid this, and preserve the environment, a tax will be imposed on households that end the year with more than 16 tons; of course this number will decrease every year to improve the given results. Renewable energies provide 13% of the electricity needed in France, nuclear energy provides 76% and fossil fuels provide 11%. We would invest in research for renewable energies (Hydro-energy, wind energy, solar energy), and close down the most risky nuclear reactors. (For example the 4 reactors in Blayais, Braud-et-Saint-Louis, which are not very productive and are very old and unsafe). Conclusion As a president, I would go towards austerity first, to reduce the debt of France, and to have more possibilities in my actions later. France is already in a dangerous situation, and going into a politic of growth would be spending too much money that we don’t have (Which is why I chose austerity as a short term solution), and it would be too much, France would go into a recession. After a period of austerity (Which means: after having reduced the debt), I would have gone in a politic of growth, which would have thrown France’s economy back on track.